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The Solitary Reaper

She Walks in Beauty

When We Two Parted

POEMS BY BLAKE & OTHER ROMANTICS

William Blake * William Wordsworth * Gordon Lord Byron * Samuel Taylor Coleridge

ANALYSED AND SET TO MUSIC BY J. M. SCHROEDER

 

 

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Spring

Human Abstract

The Tyger

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Little Vagabond

London / Holy Thursday

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Wordsworth * Byron

 

 

 


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THE SOLITARY REAPER    1805, by William Wordsworth
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WORDSWORTH "said that the poem was 'suggested by a beautiful sentence' in Wilkinson's Tours to the British Mountains: 'Passed a female who was reaping alone: she sung in Erse, as she bended [sic] over her sickle; the sweetest human voice I ever heard: her strains were tenderly melancholy, and I felt delicious long after they were heard no more.'" *1*

Many aspects of the analysis under "lexemes" will show how consistently WORDSWORTH has followed principles drafted in the preface to the "Lyrical Ballads", and how he uses imagination to describe a scene which he did not even witness himself.

structure
(1) Introduction into the scenery, presentation of the singing workmaid; (2) Comparisons of the music to the song of songbirds; (3) Musings about the song; (4) conclusion: lingering effect

lexemes
Note the following instances of poetic or obsolete words etc.: (1) Behold (Look, See), Yon (cf. German "jene"), vale (valley) vale profound (word-order); (2) chaunt (sing); (3) numbers (lines, verses); lay (ballad, song).
Title: in modern agriculture, manual harvest, a very strenuous occupation which has to be carried out in an anatomically unfavourable position has been replaced by farming machinery (reaper-binder, combine harvester); thus the scene might be hard to imagine for some younger readers. The following items help the reader get a picture of the landscape: (1) in the field, highland (lass), [/] , vale profound, hill.
The character observed by the first-person speaker is a young woman from "common life", caught in the middle of a common "rural occupation". The fact that she performs manual labour establishes a close relationship between herself and nature which both bears the fruits she has been toiling for and inspires her feelings ("passions") and singing: (1) highland lass, Reaping and Singing, cuts and binds the grain; (4) maiden, singing at her work, [/] And over the sickle bending. Consequently, her alleged thoughts are concerned with common people's rather "humble" matters: old unhappy, far-off things, battles long ago; she might have been singing a popular ballad, such as the "Border ballad ...'The battle of Otterburn' " *2* as an example of  "a narrative song ... preserved on the lips of unlettered people" *3* or other folk-lore: [e.g. a] humble lay, Familiar matter of today, [about] natural sorrow, loss, or pain [/] That has been, and may be again.
Solitude is an important feature, since it allows the human soul to concentrate on "elementary feelings": Solitary (title); (1) single, solitary, by herself, Alone. Also the comparisons in (2) describe solitary scenes: lonely travellers...in an oasis-like place (shady haunt) amidst a desert; the silence of the seas [/] Among the farthest Hebrides; at the same time the sea, i.e. the notion of water, stands in contrast to the hot and dry Arabian sands; (4) still; the tranquillity of the scenery, which is an ideal background for the woman's song may be inferred from the speaker's behaviour.
The production and perception of sound and music are essential elements, of course: (1) singing, sings, listen, sound; (2) nightingale ... chaunt, notes, voice, heard, cuckoo-bird [/] Breaking the silence...; tell, sings, numbers, lay; (4) sang, song, singing, listened, music, heard.
Within the atmosphere and the surroundings given "passions of the heart find a better soil" and are more easily "comprehensible" from a keen observer's perspective; consequently, the speaker is able to sense the emotional impact of the music itself: (1) To him it is a melancholy strain. Its notes are welcome (2). The verses sound plaintive (3); even the bird most famous for the gift of transforming "mute suffering .. into poetic song"  *4* is no match for the reaper. Similarly, her song has a more thrilling quality than that of the secretive cuckoo, which, not only by its familiar call, but also by strange and eerier "bubbling .. and .. angry coughing noises ... [signals] ... the arrival of spring in Britain". *5* An almost "physical" impact seems to become visible in the speaker's reaction in (4): [he] listened, motionless and still. The "incorporation with ... forms of nature" (see natural sorrow which is an           elementary feeling, too) seems to have a reciprocal effect: (1) the vale profound  [/] Is overflowing with the sound. The effect on the listener is a "durable", lingering one: (4) As if her song would have no ending; The music in my heart I bore [/] Long after it was heard no more.

repetition
Many of the words associated with solitude, sound etc. (s.a.) are repeated throughout the poem.
parallelism: In (2) the parallelisms introduced by No ... and Among ... emphasise the singularity of the woman's voice and song ("exclusive" No, "timeless" ever) and help to contrast the settings of the complex similes. Apart from the three repetitive words mentioned above the two comparative images are two separate lexical entities, each illustrating the impressiveness of the woman's voice in its own peculiar way.

grammar/syntax
Imperatives used in (1) address the reader directly, inviting him or her to get involved in the perception of the scene etc. and its effects: Behold her...!, Stop here, or gently pass! Oh, listen! Also the rhetorical question in (3,1) makes the reader participate in the speaker's musings; along with the subsequent rhetorical question it provides an element of change within the various sentence patterns used in the poem, e.g. in contrast to the more complex structures in (2).

sound
The rhyme pattern consisting of two alternating pairs followed by couplets (ABCB-DDEE in (1) and (4), ABAB-CCDD in (2) and (3)) splits each stanza into two units which yet remain logically connected. The second part respectively adds or contrasts new aspects to those described in the preceding four lines (further details and an "effect" in (1), contrastive imagery in (2) and (3), and "impact" in (4); s.a.). There are numerous other repetitions of vowel and consonant sounds, creating emphasis, unity, and harmony: Most striking perhaps is the repetition of /ing/-sounds as a subtle "rhyming" element throughout the poem. A rhyme in the middle of two consecutive lines is welcome - some in (2, 2-3).
Assonance: /i/-sounds throughout, e.g. /o/- sounds of an "open" quality in (4,7): sorrow, loss, or pain (also note /s/); Consonance/alliteration: /ng/-sounds (s.a.), /l/ and /s/ throughout, /l/ + /ld/ in (1,1), /l/ + /s/ in (4,5): listened, motionless and still (underlining the silence; also note /i/), /p/ in (3,2), /f/ in (3,3), /f/ + /v/ in (1, 7-8), /m/-sound e.g. in (3, 5-8) to (4,1), /m/ + /h/ in (4, 6-8), etc.

metre
mainly iambic tetrametre, in each stanza interrupted by a three-footed third line, breaking down the long octave into "digestable" units, inviting the reader to pause at this point.

atmosphere
harmony, peace, tranquillity, with a melancholic undertone (the Reaper's song), rapt interest on the part of the speaker (listener)

configuration
octave, more suitable for "musings" than the short ballad stanza

background
The principal object... was to choose incidents and situations from common life ... and to relate or describe them... in a selection of language really used by men, and, at the same time, to throw over them a certain colouring of imagination... Humble and rustic life was generally chosen, because in that condition the essential passions of the heart find a better soil...; because in that condition of life our elementary feelings coexist in a state of greater simplicity, and, consequently, may be more accurately contemplated, and more forcibly communicated; because the manners of rural life germinate from those elementary feelings, and, from the necessary character of rural occupations, are more easily comprehended, and are more durable; and, lastly, because in that condition the passions of men are incorporated with the beautiful and permanent forms of nature" (W. WORDSWORTH ) *6*

transfer
"Where have all the reapers gone?" - The lack of earth-bound occupations in the world of modern technology. What is your view of rustic life and occupations? Shall we find a way back to nature? WORDSWORTH'S principles (s.a.) - How does the poem correspond to them?



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*1* DAVIES, p. 224

*2* BOLD, p. 61

*3* BOLD, p. 2

*4* KERMODE et al., VOLUME I, p. 1291, contemplating line 38ff. of book III of  MILTON'S "Paradise Lost", in which the speaker compares himself to this bird singing  "Harmonious numbers"; the female character "Ruth" in JOHN KEAT'S "Ode to a Nightingale"  (1819), by the way, has much in common with WORDSWORTH'S reaper; cf. KERMODE et al., VOL. II, p. 540.

*5* AA (edit.), Book of the British Countryside, p. 128

*6* FURST, p. 11f.* top of analysis * BIBLIOGRAPHY * top of page



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SHE WALKS IN BEAUTY  by Gordon Lord Byron, 1815
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The poem represents an attempt to define personal beauty as a multi-faceted phenomenon constituted by far more than mere physical attractiveness. From a third-person speaker's point of view, the headline and the first line of the first stanza present a thesis stating a woman's beauty. Taking the introductory statement as a starting-point the speaker circumscribes this particular beauty by means of comparison and collects evidence in support of the statement. In the course of the poem a variety of facets are added to the beauty stated initially. In particular, metaphors have the function to paraphrase and illustrate aspects of beauty; as rhetorical devices they help to avoid a repetition of relevant features, which would make the speaker's observations and argumentation appear much less credible or convincing. Within the range of criteria and categories chosen by the author, careful gradation of aspects has an important function; yet do most of the images avoid too limited definitions (e.g. of exact colour), thus leaving scope for the reader's imagination.

structure
(1) stating of personal beauty; comparison (natural phenomena); gradation of visual elements (best of dark and bright, tender light) attributed to whole outward appearance (aspect) and eyes. (2) grace as a physical phenomenon attributed to hair (tress) and face; link with spiritual aspect (thoughts). (3) emotional "effect" ("inter-personal" aspect: smiles ... win); emotional state (goodness, peace, love), moral state (goodness, innocent); physical and spiritual aspects: cheek, brow, mind, heart.

point of view
The use of a third-person point of view seems to lend more credibility to the speaker's observations and more objectivity to his judgement. *1*Whether the speaker reports, or only guesses at, the woman's thoughts etc. remains open (cf. the concept of "limited omniscience"; *2*); at no point intimate details are exposed (e.g. as to what or where the dwelling-place in (2,6) is). As a consequence, both a certain degree of detachment is maintained - as an indispensable element of "objective" judgement - and the reader is free to use his or her own imagination at many points (s.a.).

lexemes
Beauty; an aesthetic concept, an inherent or perceived quality of a static (e.g. picture) or dynamic (e.g. movement), of a physical or non-physical phenomenon, of an object or a person. Frequently, the stating of beauty is a spontaneous reaction to sensory stimuli appealing positively to the senses of e.g. sight and hearing. *3* Conscious judgement upon the presence or absence, or the degree of beauty requires criteria (standards, principles) and categories, which may vary widely, according to individual attitudes, social/cultural standards etc., or even zeitgeist. Examples of more or less objectifiable and communicable characteristics which can help to "determine" the beauty of phenomena are, on the visual level, for example the intensity of colour (light vs. dark), and the criterion of symmetry; on the auditory level the intensity and harmony of sound can be criteria. Grading of characteristics (e.g. very light, less light etc.) and "weighing of arguments" (too light, too dark) are essential in judging on the phenomenon of beauty (s.a.); in this context someone or something possessing "balanced" qualities etc. seems to be most likely to be considered as beautiful. *4* The poem takes visual aspects of personal beauty as a starting point:  (1) Literally, the metaphor She walks in beauty suggests the appearance of a woman passing etc. under the speaker's eye; her gait, posture etc. may represent physical and dynamic aspects of her beauty. Against the background of the whole poem the term in beauty might suggest that she is surrounded by an aura of beauty, which is created by both physical and non-physical aspects.
The whole of her appearance is compared to that of the night of cloudless climes (regions etc. in which the night sky is clearly visible; associations: e.g. warm, cloudless nights in southern parts of Europe) and starry skies (the pattern of scattered lights of various but not to bright intensities; the skies are essential, too, as their background). The simile itself is a metaphor if the night is supposed to walk, too: She walks ..., like (conj. = in the same way as; < lit. > , < inform.>) the night ... [does]: the night, or a peculiar night (s.a.), "approaches" at dusk and "gets out of sight" at dawn.
A superlative emphasises the beauty of her aspect (again including all of her outward appearance; cf. above). At the same time, it refers to her eyes as a most relevant physical detail (communicative function: looking into someone's eyes mostly establishes the first contact between persons): all that's best of dark and bright [/]Meet in her aspect and her eyes. The intensity of the resulting light is defined in different ways: it is regarded as mellow'd (developed to a soft and warm colour; connotations of "mellow": sweet and ripe; cf. fruit and wine; also: calm, wise etc.); the light is tender (gentle; connotation: delicate, sensitive to touch); by comparison daylight is gaudy (too bright, too much decorated); a logical inversion of the argument presented in the last line of (1) would even imply that (material or immaterial) heaven has reserved the light for her which it denies to gaudy day. Further visual details are her (strands etc. of) hair (tress;< lit. >), which is black and shiny (raven; < lit. >) and her face (2). They are elements of a complex metaphor centred around the word grace (a mainly visual concept) in the second line. Grace ... waves in her hair, and lightens o'er her face: the way in which her hair moves and the play of her facial expressions are graceful, i.e. of an effortless and a natural character. The grace is hyperbolically termed as nameless, i.e. as a phenomenon which cannot be expressed by words. A perfect intensity of light (one shade the more, one ray the less... in the first two lines, softly lightens in line 4) is relevant, too, within the metaphoric context.
In addition to visual aspects thoughts of a positive nature (s.b.) are mirrored by her facial expressions. In (3), the woman's cheek (cf. the sensual quality of  "lip" instead; avoidance of sexual connotations?) and brow are the visual aspects contemplated by the speaker. Smiles ... win, i.e. help to gain other people's affection, friendship, love etc.; tints, i.e. delicate shades of colour, which, in this context, are probably thought to be a natural part of the complexion rather than to be the result of make-up, glow, i.e. produce a soft, moderate light *5* - unlike flames of an blazing fire. According to (3,2), the "dynamic" phenomena smiles and glow are of a balanced quality (s.b.). The term eloquent and the related word tell in (3,4) underline the dynamic quality of smiles and tints, which "mirror" a positive personal background (s.b.).
Non-visual or non-physical facets are first hinted at in (2,5). The woman's thoughts are characterised by the adjective sweet (cf. connotation of mellowed above; matured) in connection with the adverb serenely which points to calmness, peacefulness, freedom from trouble etc. (cf. the image of the serene night in (1); calmness may also be a sign of mature intellect). Further on, the dwelling-place of these thoughts is pure (connotations: clean, untroubled, without ulterior motives, honest, innocent, etc.) and dear (much loved, precious; associated with positive emotions). By finding a visible expression (s.a.; note the literal "dynamic" meaning of ex-press) the thoughts create a link between spiritual, moral etc. qualities of a personality (maturity, intellect; emotionality, morality etc.) and physical ones.Correspondingly, in (3), the smiles and tints express a non-physical content, reflecting the woman's positive circumstances of life, and/or her good-natured character etc. (goodness).
Two non-physical aspects round off the picture of multi-faceted beauty: Her mind, the source of the thoughts typified above, is at peace, i.e. she is free from, or has learned to come to terms with, worries, quarrels etc., without intending to do harm to anyone or anything (note the link to the concept of innocence; see innocent love below; also cf. connotation of serenely above). The peaceful state of mind refers to all below; the latter might stand for the minor events, affairs etc. of every-day life; at the same time the expression may state the high position of the mind among all the elements constituting beauty and/or the speaker's high esteem of the woman's mind and personality, which would rank her above other individuals. The second of these aspects is her heart (not in a physical sense:), which is able to feel innocent love as the purest and morally highest form of emotion (note the original meaning of innocent (lat.): free from harmful intentions; s.a. peace, cf. the image of purity etc. above).

contrast
Contrastive elements are used throughout the text; apart from the functional, stark contrast between the image of gaudy day and that of tender light (1), they are very well compatible with each other and merge into states of perfect moderation or balance: (1) night + (dark) starry skies (pattern of lights "within" dark background; s.a.), (1) all that's best of dark and bright [/] meet ...; mellowed to .. tender light; (2) one shade the more, one ray the less [/] had half impaired...; which waves (more intense movement) ... or softly lightens (less intense), raven (both black and shiny; s.a.); (3) so soft, so calm, yet eloquent.

repetition
And/and is the most frequent word (copulative function: enumeration of aspects; s.b.). The repetition of softly/soft in (2) and (3) emphasises moderation as one facet of beauty (cf. contrast above, word-classes below). Other words are repeated, mostly in initial positions (anaphora), within parallel structures. Otherwise repetition seems to have been deliberately avoided; finding ever-new words and aspects in support of a statement is more convincing than reiterating phrases.
Parallelisms help to structure/organise, contrast, and emphasise thoughts: e.g. (1) her aspect .. her eyes; (2) One ..., one...; how ..., how ...; (3) And on ..., and o'er... ; So soft, so calm; The smiles that .., the tints that..; A mind ... [/] A heart ...

word-classes
Almost logically, dynamic aspects are predominantly expressed by verbs: (1) She walks (s.a.); All that's best of dark and bright [/] Meet...; (2) grace [/] ... waves..., thoughts ... express; (3) smiles ... win, tints ... glow, [/] But tell ...; a dynamic component is, however, also part of the meaning of the adjective eloquent (3), and the nouns thoughts (2) and smiles (3), respectively. Colour/light is e.g. a semantic component of nouns themselves: (1) night, skies, light, day; (2) shade, ray; (3) tints; it is otherwise attributed to nouns by adjectives: (1) starry, dark, bright, tender, gaudy; (2) raven.
According to their grammatical function chiefly adverbs serve to determine the degree of phenomena, in this case moderating or intensifying qualities: (2) half impaired), softly (lightens), serenely (sweet), How (pure), how (dear), (3) so (soft), so (calm); the adjectives best (1) and soft (3), and the verb mellow'd (1) have the same function (cf. contrast above).
The semantic fields of innocence/purity and emotion/value are represented by adjectives and nouns: (1) cloudless, (2) pure, (3) peace, innocent; (1) best, (2) nameless, sweet, dear, (3) heart, love.

grammar/syntax
Note the potential grammatical discord of subject + verb in (1): all that's best of dark and bright [/] meet; there are the following explanations: principle of "proximity": grammatical subject = dark and bright + plural verb?; notional concord: various aspects matter, thus plural verb; less probable: meet = subjunctive expressing possibility, assumption etc.).
Fitting in with the subject/theme of the text (judgement on beauty; statement + evidence + conclusion; s.a.) coordinate and subordinate sentence/clause types are used which, according to their functions, are frequently found in argumentative texts. Here, distinguishable functions are (conjunctions, type, etc. in parentheses): enumeration (copulative and, throughout the text, disjunctive or (2); without connectors in the form of incomplete sentence patterns in (3, 5-6)); exemplification (prep. or conj. like, (1)); conclusion (consecutive Thus, (1)); definition (relative pronoun Which (1), (2)); contrast (or, s.a.; comparative structure the ... the...(2)); adversative yet, (3)). Each stanza is a syntactic unit consisting of various sentence/clause types.

punctuation
Thoughts are linked rather than interrupted by the semicolon in (1,2) and the colon in (1,4); in the same way the semicolon in (2,4) does not interrupt the train of thought. Full stops mark the end of (1) and (2). In (3, 1-3) commas help to arrange the speaker's enumeration of impressions, which seems to merge into the longer final statements, the last of which (innocent love as perhaps the most relevant component of beauty?) is given special emphasis by an exclamation mark.

configuration
stanza form of the sestet, which seems more appropriate for complex trains of thought than the ballad stanza.

sound
end-rhyme pattern ABABAB, with a near rhyme/eye-rhyme in (3), as an integral element of the unity of each stanza (see syntax, punctuation, configuration above).
Unity and harmony are also created by assonance (e.g. /ai/- sounds in (1), /ei/-sounds in (2), /i:/- and /i/- sounds in (2) and (5)) and consonance/alliteration: e.g. /cl/ in (1,2), /t/ in (1,5), /w/ + /v/ in (2,3), /s/ in (2,5), /p/ + /d/ + /l/ in (2,6), /s/ + /t/ in (3,2), voiced th-sound in (3,3).

metre
iambic tetrameter with no significant variation; playful variation would be incompatible with the speaker's serious mood and the atmosphere of the poem.

atmosphere
dreamlike (night), tender (tender light; softly, soft etc.), peaceful (peace); state of being rapt in serious contemplation/thought.

background
The lady has been identified as Byron's cousin Anne Wilmot; "he saw her at a party and wrote that she 'appeared in mourning, with dark spangles on her dress'" *6*

transfer
The poet's concept of multi-faceted and innocent personal beauty - Try to identify, categorise and evaluate relevant aspects. Give your definition of "beauty", finding your own criteria, categories etc. (cross-references to philosophical, aesthetic concepts applied to personal beauty, art, music, etc.). Innocent beauty - an anachronism in a sensual world?


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*1* On the other hand, both in narrative prose and in many poems, the first-person point of view is more credible in relating individual experiences "colored [sic] by the narrator's predispositions, prejudices, and personal limitations." MORNER, p. 171; cf. p. 170.

*2* cf. MORNER, p. 171

*3* Note that the perception of beauty is not restricted to these senses: cf. the following observations: "Your touch is beautiful" (tactile perception)."The meal was beautiful"(taste + sight + perception of the whole atmosphere?). "The weather is beautiful." (tactile: warmth, soft breeze etc.; sight) "What a beautiful smell!" "It is beautiful to fall in love." (senses, extra-sensory elements)

*4* Most people would probably agree that blinding light would be too bright and music beyond a certain decibel level would be too loud to be beautiful, since the intensities exceed the pain threshold. Still, other people might judge exactly this as "wicked" in a positive sense (youth jargon), i.e. beautiful.

*5* glow itself may be seen as a hyperbole (cf. fluorescent light radiating independently of an external source of light) which is quite commonly collocated with words describing "warm" colours (tints of complexion) etc.; in my opinion, in this context, the aspect of moderate light prevails.

*6* BURR, p. 74; KERMODE, F., p. 208.

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WHEN WE TWO PARTED  1816, by Gordon Lord Byron
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structure
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lexemes
repetition
grammar/syntax
word-classes
punctuation
configuration
sound
metre
atmosphere
background
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This poem voices the emotional aftermath of a separation from a first-person speaker's point of view. With remarkable frankness, the speaker lays open a spectrum of partly conflicting feelings, brooding over the loss of love, over his general sorrow, and particular emotions such as grief, shame, hurt pride, disappointment, disdain, regret, hope, and despair. In the poem, time does not prove to be a healer, leaving the speaker behind in a depressive mood to the very end. The quality of the poem may be "marred by the air of moral sniffyness at a couple of points" *1* ; yet does such a quality virtually add to the credibility of the subject and theme worded by "the most antithetical of men, and one of the most self-divided of poets." *2* (cf. background below)

structure
(1) the splitting-up - only the start of an emotional collapse? (2) the morning after - increasing sorrow, (first) disappointment; shame and sympathy for an ill-famed woman. (3) deepest (inward) humiliation, disdain, doubts and regrets. (4) résumé, outlook

point of view
The poet's use of a first-person speaker lends a high degree of credibility to the revelation and description of intimate personal thoughts and emotions.

lexemes
Poetic etc. use of words: (1) etc. thy = your,(2) light < lit.> = happy, cheerful, free of worries, (3) thee = you (acc.), knell <lit.> = bell rung at a funeral etc.; mine = my; wert = were, o'er = over; thou = you (nom.), rue = regret; Neglecting the speaker's emotions, a "factual account" of the circumstances of the separation could be based on the following observations: the separation puts an end to a secret love affair: (4,1) In secret we met. (2), (3) People who remain anonymous, perhapsrelatives, friends, or members of a certain circle of society mention the woman's name, even in front of the speaker, not knowing about his feelings: I hear thy name spoken ... They name thee before me ... They know not I knew thee. (2,6) The woman's renown is dubious: [her] fame is light (s.a.), i.e. she is probably not considered to be a person of a profound and serious character etc.; in connection with the aspect of shame (2,8), this seems to allude to immoral behaviour, the secret love affair having been another instance as such. The lovers split up for an indefinite period of time, the concrete reason for the separation remaining unknown: (1) We two parted ... to sever (break, cut off the relationship) for years. There is the possibility of meeting again (see (4, 5-8)); yet, against the emotional background revealed by the speaker, there hardly seems to be any chance of a reconciliation.
The gist of the poem, however, is represented by the speaker's highly subjective perceptions and feelings during and after the splitting-up. Since, at the moment of separation, both lovers find themselves in silence and tears .. [/ and] Half broken-hearted (the latter complex being a complement attributed to we two in the first line), up to this point, the woman shares his feelings, reacting in the same speechless way to the loss of a person who has been a close friend or lover. The closeness felt by the speaker is disclosed by (4,4) Why wert thou so dear? and (3,5) I knew thee [/] Who knew thee too well (intimacy; see, however, conflicting emotions below).
During the separation he senses the woman's loss of affection, as it is reflected by physical phenomena: (1,5) pale grew [her] cheek and cold (change of complexion, decrease in skin temperature, due to reduced circulation of the blood) *3*; a clearly sensual aspect is the loss of passion he perceives during the act of kissing: (1,6) [Her] kiss [grows] Colder.
Whereas the woman has obviously overcome the sadness etc. connected with the separation (s.b.), the speaker falls into a state of depression; (1, 7-8) in this respect, that hour only foreshadows the augmenting degree of sorrow (unhappyness, sadness, grief and other, partly conflicting, feelings; s.b.) arising in the wake of the split-up until the "present hour" (this), and leading him into an even deeper state of dejection.  From a psychological viewpoint, the element of silence (s.a.) may have had a strong effect          on the speaker: moments of silence generally are very touching and dramatic; another aspect is that suppressed feelings, i.e. feelings which are not "ex-pressed" in some way, tend to linger on  - in the subconscious etc. (the tears have thus been an insufficient kind of "outlet"). The next step in the speaker's emotional downfall is taken on the morning after the separation (morning = start of a new day, new period of life; here the "dawning", i.e. realisation, of the true extent of loss etc.). A metaphor describes his feelings: (2, 1-2) The dew of the morning (drops of water forming in the cold of dawn; association: tears, cold s.a.) sunk (indicating the speaker's low position: depression, dejection) chill on [his] brow, chill being an unpleasant coldness, the sensation of it; or even "an illness marked by coldness and shaking of the body" *4* (cf. cold above, shudders below); the brow is the anatomical feature behind which thoughts and emotions are formed, which are hampered now by the cold; it is also one of the parts of the body where fever is felt first. The chill (It) is only like the warning of the speaker's present feelings; the emotional state "on the morning after" becomes another foreshadowing, which, as such, emphasises the present degree of depression etc. (2, 3-4).
Conflicting emotions, of which depression or dejection is only one aspect, are revealed through reactions and thoughts communicated at various points of the poem: (2, 5-8) Thy vows are all broken (all, det. = every single one of; all, adv. =  wholly, altogether etc.; used for emphasis in either case); this breaking of solemn promises or "breach of contract", which is not specified        at this point, might provoke strong disappointment at least (cf. 4, 2-4; s.b.). He feels ashamed himself, or sympathises with the woman when her name          is publically put shame on (s.a. ill fame). (3,1) Whenever the woman's name etc. is mentioned in his very presence (s.a.) it sounds like a knell to [his] ear, i.e., he virtually seems to wish that the ground would open and swallow him up in order to prevent him from feeling (inward) shame or embarassment. A physical reaction to such a confrontation is the shudder (uncontrollable reaction provoked by cold (s.a.), dislike, disgust, disdain, embarassment, shame, s.a.; less likely: reminiscences of happy days) which comes o'er (over) him; the latter phrase puts him in a passive, and, again, a low position (s.a.).
Perhaps as a result of this, in (3,4), he utters ironical doubt about the worth of the relationship as a whole, or of the degree of his emotional involvement, using a rhetorical question: Why wert thou so dear? In this context the meaning of  (3,6; s.a.intimacy, closeness) is ambiguous: having known the woman too well might also hint at presentiments felt, but suppressed, by the speaker during the relationship. The latter statement, or all the preceding thoughts, prompt the feeling and expression of deep regret at having had a relationship with her: (3, 7-8) Long, long shall I rue thee, [/] Too deeply to tell.
In spite of the distance gained in (3), the pains and sufferings go on; his grief cannot be expressed openly, but only in silence (4,2) corresponding to the secret character of the love affair (s.a.). His silent grieving unavoidably stirs up memories of the separation itself, i.e. the moment when the feeling of sheer loss manifested itself in silence and tears (s.a.); the subsequent lines indicate that disappointment now forms an additional and substantial component of his sadness etc. He blames the woman for the breach of contract; bearing both emotional and spiritual aspects (s.a. vows) in mind, he grieves, i.e. he virtually complains, that [her] heart could forget, i.e. that she has meanwhile ceased to remembermoments of love and affection etc., and that her spirit [could] deceive, i.e. that also the "reasoning" part of her mind has become untrue and dishonest towards him.
In (4, 5-7) the speaker imagines a future meeting, which is not deemed impossible, although to be considered rather unlikely towards the end of the poem (if + use of modal auxiliary: if I should meet thee [/] After long years; cf. (1,4) to sever for years); the subsequent question expresses emotional uncertainty about the first moment of a potential encounter, the dash at the end of the line indicating a pause for thought: How should I greet thee?- ; the use of the modal auxiliary should provides ambiguity, as to whether the speaker is, perhaps apprehensively, pondering over his most likely reaction, or is seeking to give himself "strategic" advice; in the first case, an encounter, finding the speaker pent-up with frustration, shame etc., and haunted by positive memories and feelings, would simply trigger his relapse into the depressive mood associated with the moment of the separation; in the latter case, the speaker would use silence and tears (4,8) as an instrument (With...) in order to communicate his emotional state to his former mistress, his ulterior motives remaining open to speculation (reconciliation, revenge?).

repetition
Terms associated with feelings: When we two parted (title and first line; emphasising the "key moment"); (1,2), (4,8) silence and tears (impressive situational factors; note potential shift of meaning in (4) in connection with "instrumental" use; s.a.); (4,2) silence; aspect of coldness: (1,5-6) cold, cold [-er]; this aspect is also repeated as a connotation of (2,2) chill and (3,3) shudder; (2, 3-4) felt, feel; lost relationship: (1,3) broken[-hearted], (2,5) broken [vows], (1,3) [broken-]hearted, (4,3) heart [could forget].
Terms stressing duration of time, suffering etc.: (1,4) [for] years, (4,6) [After long] years; (3,7) Long, long, (4,6) long [years]; Other terms: (4, 5-6) (know), knew, knew; (4, 5 and 7) should, with change of meaning (s.a.); personal pronouns: we, thy, thee, I (s.b.); (3,6), (3,8) too (cf. word-classes, syntax - enjambment)
parallelism: 4,1-2) In + noun (secret/silence); the phrases we met / I grieve contrast togetherness vs. loneliness and the respective actions linked to either state; (4, 3-4) [That] thy ... + noun + verb [/] Thy + noun + verb; this parallelism helps to organise thought without breaking up the enjambment (s.b.).

grammar/syntax
In (1, 1-6) and (4, 2-4 and 5-8) relatively long syntactic units (various sentence/clause types) seem to reflect profound emotional involvement. As in the stanzas referred to in the following, each two successive lines are semantically linked, i.e. the thought is carried on from one line into another, according to the predominant pattern of run-on lines or enjambment *5* (cf. punctuation, metre). Within this structural pattern, repetition (e.g. cold, colder, felt, feel, knew etc.; pronouns; s.b.), parallelism (s.a.), and contrast (that hour ... this, s.a. lexemes) help to resume aspects, thus linking the two parts of the enjambment, respectively. (4,1) can be considered an end-stopped line.v In contrast to the longer constructions in the first and last stanza, in (2) and (3) each successive pair of lines forms a detachable syntactic and semantic unit; concise, rational thought prevails, with the speaker gaining some emotional distance (s.a.). Nevertheless, also in these stanzas the first and the last two pairs, respectively, combine to larger units of thought (cf. punctuation, end-rhyme pattern). Questions: (3,4): irony, doubt; (4,7) real uncertainty or rhetorical question. Note (3,5): poetic or old form of negation: know not

word-classes
In particular, adverbs help to describe the intensity of feelings etc.: (1,3) half, (2,5) all (unless determiner; s.a.),(3,4) so, (3,6) verb + (too +) well (3,8) too + deeply + verb. According to the nature of the subject, there is frequent use of personal pronouns (including possessive pronouns, different cases); the first-person speaker's thoughts (point of view; s.a.) provide a permanent shift of focus: (title, (1)) the two lovers are included in we; (1) shift from we to thy (the woman being the object of the speaker's feelings etc. she is the first of the two to be focused on individually; as a rule of chivalry?); (2) alternating reference to himself and the woman: my-I / thy-thy, I / thy; (3) broadening of perspective: social aspect (They); alternation (s.a.): thee / me, mine-me / thou, I / thee-thee, I / thee; (4) shift to/from we to I (s.a. parallelism), I / thy-thy, I / thee, I / thee; the woman is most frequently represented by a pronoun in the object case (thee; s.a. object of feelings).Various tenses are used indicating the duration of the speaker's sufferings past - present - "modal future" (4).

punctuation
Commas help to organise aspects, hardly interrupting trains of thought which extend across lines, semicolons create significant pause at the end of two successive lines (end of two-line enjambment) and full stops confine larger semantic units (s.a.). Dashes are used at different points for pause or connection. In (4, 1-2), the dash seems to substitute a full stop. Question marks signal doubt, uncertainty etc. (s.a.).

configuration
Byron obviously avoided the typographical convention of the ballad stanza, which would have been a plausible choice, too, in congruence with the logical and grammatical pattern of the run-on lines used in the poem (s.b.); instead he created rather an individual form which he perhaps found more adequate for the very personal matter than the all-too common alternative, and which, of course, matches the chosen rhyme pattern. The eight-line stanza suits the complexity of the emotions but, owing to the shortness of the lines, retains the conciseness of lyrical poetry *6* -  in comparison with the five-footed 'ottiva rima' as the most typical form of octave, which was often used by poets such as SPENSER, MILTON, and BYRON himself. *7*

sound
The end-rhyme pattern (A-B-A-B)-(C-D-C-D) corresponds to the pattern of thought, linking larger semantic units (s.a. syntax, punctuation); most of the rhymes are perfect; identical rhymes occur in (3) and (4), putting particular stress on the word me, and, by means of quadruple end-repetition, even more emphasis on thee. Within the succession of the short, two-footed lines the sound effect of the end-rhymes is very dominant, but, to a considerable extent, also the close repetition of words at other points (s.a.) is responsible for congruences of consonant and vowel sounds. In combination with, or in addition to, these phonetic complexes the repetition of single phonetic elements (alliteration/ consonance, assonance) contributes to the unity of sound: (1) /w/ in (1,1), (1, 5-8) voiced /th/-phoneme and /o/-sounds, (1, 5-6) /k/, (2) /ai/, (2, 6-8) end-rhymes + internal rhyme name (2,8) /sh/-phoneme, (3, 1-3) /m/, (3, 1-4) /i:/, (3, 4) /w/, (3, 5-6) voiced /th/-phoneme, /n/, (3, 5-8) /u:/, (3, 7-8) /l/, (3,8) /t/, (4) /t/, (4, 1-2) /s/, etc.

metre
Most of the run-on lines (s.a.), i.e. each two consecutive lines, can be scanned in rather a fluent rhythm, as (1, 1-2), for example.

When we two parted [/] In silence and tears [/]
- ' - ' - - ' - - '
Half broken-hearted [/] To sever for years [/]
' - - ' - - ' - - '

Others clearly demand an interruption of the flow of speech, providing meaningful "pauses of thoughtfulness", as in (1,5-6), where there are two consecutive stressed syllables, in (4, 5-6), where line 6 starts with an accented syllable, and in (4,7-8), where, quite naturally, a moment for reflection seems to be necessary before a "reply" to the rhetorical question is given.

Pale grew thy cheek and cold [///] Colder thy kiss
' - - ' - ' /// ' - - '

If I should meet thee [///] After long years [/]               ' - - ' - /// ' - - '
How should I greet thee [///] With silence and tears.  ' - - ' - /// - ' - - '

Some interesting variation is to be found in (4, 1-4), giving this part an identity of its own (s.a. structure: "résumé"); again, the absence of a light syllable creates an effectful pause; (4, 1-2) are end-stopped lines (s.a. syntax):

In secret we met [/]                             - ' - - '
In silence I grieve [/]                     - ' - - ' That thy heart could forget [/]     - - ' - - '
Thy spirit deceive [/]                     - ' - - '

atmosphere
sad, moody; at points bitter, ironical>

background
Byron's numerous love affairs, his experience of public scandal etc. *8*make an autobiographical background seem likely. Byron himself has obviously kept discretion on behalf of the woman, leaving it to posterity to guess at her identity and the nature of the relationship. *9*

transfer
The speaker's fairness - is he a man of morality? "Moral sniffiness" (disdain etc.) -  a flaw or  a legitimate element of this lyrical poem? Psychological aspects: The psychological development of the speaker. Time and suffering - Why is time not always a healer? On the basis of these topics transfer to personal experiences is possible, but it might hurt private feelings. Other possibilities: The secret love affairs and feelings of those in the lime-light (e.g. Prince Charles - Lady "Di") - a public matter? Formal aspects: the poly-functionality of elements in this poem.


__________________________________

 

*1* K. AMIS, a contemporary poet, commenting on this poem in a newspaper gloss; the source is a newspaper cutting (DAILY EXPRESS) from an unknown date.

*2* KERMODE et al., VOL. II, p. 285

*3* Physiologically speaking, such bodily reactions are influenced by nervous impulses from the brain's limbic cortex which contains clusters of nerve cells responsible for emotional aspects of behaviour.

*4* LONGMAN, Dictionary of Contemporary English, p.167

*5* cf. MORNER et al, p. 192;  "genuine" run-on lines are (1, 1-2) and (4, 5-6), for example; enjambment in the narrowest sense would perhaps exclude a separation of aspects by commas; yet could lines concluded by a comma hardly be termed as "end-stopped lines".

*6* cf. MORNER et al, p. 126

*7* cf. MORNER et al, p. 155; BYRON'S satirical epic poem "Don Juan" perhaps being this author's most relevant work; cf. KERMODE et al., VOL II, p. 286, 315ff.

*8* cf. KERMODE et al., VOL. II, p. 285f.

*9* Lady Frances Wedderburn Webster, with whom he had a 'platonic' affair, or Caroline Lamb?; cf. KERMODE, F., p. 209; cf. BURR, p. 73

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